Context

The context for these discussions and resources is the South African National Qualification Qualifications Framework and the Skills Development Act which introduced learnerships and skills programmes.

The apprenticeship paradigm

Instructional methodology: modeling, coaching, and fading

Apprentices are inducted into a community of expert practice

Principles

1. Work is the driving force. The progressive mastering of tasks by apprentices is appreciated not as a step towards a distant, symbolic goal (such as a certificate), but for its immediate value in getting the work done. 
2. Apprentices start with skills that are relatively easy and where mistakes are least costly. 
3. Learning is focused on bodily performance. It involves the ability to do rather than the ability to talk about something. 
4. Standards of performance are embedded in the work environment. What constitutes expert execution of a task is obvious, and judgments about the learner's competence emerge naturally and continuously in the context of the work. The apprentice "owns the problem" of moving on to the acquisition of the next skill.
5. Teachers and teaching are largely invisible. In apprenticeship learning--and informal job training in American workplaces--it looks as though little teaching is going on. Whatever instruction the apprentice receives, originates not from a teacher teaching, but from a worker doing his or her work that the apprentice observes.

Components

The components of the model that have to be considered are:

• content
• methods
• sequence
• sociology

Content

The content that schools usually exclusively focus on are the concepts, facts and procedures of a ‘subject’ or knowledge domain. To operate effectively in any setting, however, students also need three other types of content: 

1. "Tricks of the trade"--problem-solving strategies that experts pick up with experience.
2. Cognitive management strategies--goal setting, strategic planning, monitoring, evaluation, and revision.
3. Learning strategies--knowing how to learn, including exploring new fields, getting more knowledge in a familiar subject, and reconfiguring knowledge already possessed.

Methodology

The teaching methodology consists of the following stages:

1. model - step through the complete  task or solve the complete problem while verbalising the external and internal processes
2. coach- offer hints, provide feedback and reminders
3. provide "scaffolding"-start of with the simple aspects while providing support and gradually allowing support for learners as they learn to carry out tasks
4. fade-gradually hand over control of the learning process to the learner

Sequence

The learning sequence is as follows:

1. start with the simple building block skills
2. cluster skills into more meaningful performance
3. introduce advanced techniques
4. introduce variations, complications and alternative contexts to mimic real life
5. Allow for practice

Sociology

The sociology of this approach is to avoid the 'learner alone' context. Instead:

1. Try to reproduce the real work environment of team members, customers, bosses, suppliers
2. Require co-operation, conflicting demands, adjustments to goals

Sources

Collins, A., Brown, J.S. & Newman, S.E. (1989)      Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading,  writing and mathematics. In L.B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale, NJ:  Erlbaum - Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989  

Berryman, Sue E, undated. Designing effective learning environment: Cognitive Apprenticeship Models, http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/Publications/papers/berry1.html